The Original Wason Card Selection Problem Essay Example for Free

The Original Wason Card Selection Problem Essay For many years, the Wason card selection problem has proved useful for psychologists and other experts in the study of human reasoning and logical ability (Kahneman Tversky 1982; Almor Sloman 1996; Yama 2001; Fiddick, Cosmides, Tooby 2000). One of the most popularly used tools in the assessment of the cognitive architecture of humans, the Wason card selection task tests the participants’ logical intuitions based on conditional implications (Almor Sloman 1996). The task likewise proves whether the human mind â€Å"implements rules of logical inference† (Fiddick, Cosmides, Tooby, 2000) by the subjects’ demonstrated ability â€Å"to endorse a statement of a general rule† or an argument to counter the rule. (Kahneman Tversky 1982) In the original version of the Wason card selection, the participants of the experiment were shown four cards showing A, T, 4, and 7 by the experimenter. They are then asked to choose which card/s they would turn-over to test the rule â€Å"if a card has a vowel on one side, it has an even number on the other† (Wason 1966) or the probability of the relationship â€Å"if p then q† within the four cards. The Wason selection task is structured so that the four cards are limited to display the instances of a true antecedent (TA) or a false antecedent (FA) on the side shown to the subjects, and a true consequent (TC) or a false consequent (FC) on the other. (Yama 2000) Alternatively, the first side shows instances of ‘p’ and ‘not p’ and ‘q’ and ‘not q’ on the side not shown to the subjects. (Dawson, Gilovich, Regan 2002) What has interested many psychologists and experts is the fact that the typical success rate for solving Wason’s problem in experiments conducted is only around twenty percent (20%). (Dawson, Gilovich, Regan 2002) The most common mistake committed by the participants in the card selection process is choosing the cards with A and 4 or A only instead of the correct response that should have been the cards with A or the p-card and 7 or the not-q card because â€Å"an observation of an odd number on the first card (A) or a vowel on the second card (7) would refute the rule.† (Kahneman Tversky 1982). Researchers suggest that this failure from the part of the subjects to provide the correct answers despite the latent simplicity of the problem may be due to the fact that the problem is not represented in its simple logical form (Fiddick, Cosmides, Tooby 2000), confusing many subjects. On the other hand, a growing number of scholars point out to the role of confirmation bias—or the way that human beings systematically seek for instances that would confirm a theory rather than for instances to refute a theory—as a major hindrance to the effective use of logic and reasoning skills of humans (Klayman Ha 1987; Dawson, Gilovich, Regan 2002) which may also explain why majority of the participants fail in the Wason card selection. Other variations to the task have since been developed. For instance, the task is now being used to test not only the human ability for abstract reasoning but also in deontic reasoning. A variation of the Wason card experiment, one that involves only the number sequence 2-4-6 has also been used to study the process of hypotheses-formation among human beings (Cherubini, Castelvecchio, Cherubini 2005). However, the debate on the way that humans approach problems—whether they indeed express problems in logical form—has yet to be settled. (Fiddick, Cosmides, Tooby 2000) This study therefore aims to replicate Wason’s original experiment of the four-card selection problem to test whether the same results would be achieved as in the original experiment and to examine whether confirmation bias remained a major problem in answering the tasks for many of the participants. Works Cited: Kahneman, D. A. Tversky. (1982). On the study of statistical intuitions. Cognition, 11: 123-141 Dawson, E., Gilovich, T., D.T. Regan (2002). Motivated reasoning and performance on the Wason selection task. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 28:1379. Almor, A. S.A. Sloman (1996). Is deontic reasoning special? Psychological Review, 103: 374-380. Yama, H. (2001). Matching versus optimal data selection in the Wason selection task. Thinking and Reasoning, 7(3): 295-311. Fiddick, L., Cosmides, L., J. Tooby. (2000). No interpretation without representation: The role of domain-specific representations and inferences in the Wason selection task. Cognition, 77: 1-79. Wason, P.C. (1966). Reasoning. In B.M. Foss (Ed.), New horizons in psychology. Harmondsworth: Penguin. Klayman, J. Y. Ha (1987). Confirmation, disconfirmation, and information in hypothesis testing. Psychological Review, 94(2): 211-228. Cherubini, P., Castelvecchio, E., A. M. Cherubini. (2005). Generation of hypotheses in Wason’s 2-4-6 task: An information theory approach. The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 58A(2): 309-332

The Trebuchet Essay examples -- medieval siege machine

Used by castle commanders during times of peace to hurl roses to ladies during tournaments, trebuchets proved a deadly weapon in the field of ancient warfare. Flinging a wide variety of objects hundreds of yards, the trebuchet became the weapon of choice for laying siege to a castle. Its incredible range could often place it beyond the effectual defense range of the castle archers, thereby permitting the besiegers to destroy the defender's walls with little interference. During extended sieges, trebuchets were often used to hurl large quantities of dung, dead animals, and other such items to encourage disease throughout the besieged city. Trebuchets earned a reputation for being much more accurate and precise than their onager and catapult counterparts. Not only was this accuracy a benefit, but being based on rotational motion and leverage rather than torsion (spring power) and lacking in a throwing arm stop, the trebuchet proved a much safer alternative for the personnel operating it. Onagers and Mangonels would literally explode on occasion when the torsion proved too great or a crack developed in the throwing arm due to the rapid stops it experienced. All in all, the Trebuchet was a fearsome weapon of mass destruction during the Middle Ages, a force to be reckoned with. Trebuchets only lost favor when cannons emerged, and the primary benefit of the cannon that the trebuchet lacked was not in fact power, but rather mobility. Smaller, more maneuverable cannons rapidly overran the position of the trebuchet in most armies across the world. Warwolf, the legendary trebuchet built by the English Army to destroy Castle Urquhart, which was located in the Highlands of Scotland, on the shores of the also infamous Loch Ness. Par... ...elease and a more horizontal trajectory, with higher velocity. In an attempt to better understand the components of the trebuchet and to permit the viewer a better idea of the manner in which the firing of a trebuchet occurs, a trebuchet constructed entirely of K-nex was built this past week. The counterweight consisted of 5000 steel bb's wrapped in plastic and duct tape, while the sling itself was made of duct tape and twine. The remaineder of the trebuchet, including the throwing arm, were constructed purely from K-nex. Standing some 3 feet tall, this trebuchet could repeatedly launch a 2-3oz object in excess of 20 feet. Lengthening the sling proved valuable, increasing velocity and range considerably. However, a point was reached at which the sling length could be said to be optimized, and lengthening it further only created unpredictable release angles.

Transport and Writing Task

TASK 1 DESCRIBING INFORMATION FROM TABLES Tables compare data and may also show changes over time as well. They are often used when there is quite a lot of information, so it is important to select the key features to describe. I. Understanding the data Read the writing task below and look at the table. Answer these questions to help you understand the information given. 1. What two main areas does the table show figures for? 2. How is each main area subdivided? 3.What main difference do the figures show within each area? 4. How many years does the table deal with? 5. What are the main trends over time? 6. What kind of language can you use when describing the data? Writing Task 1 You should spend about 20 minutes on this task The table below gives figures for student applications and acceptances for UK university courses in the field of tourism, transport and travel. Write a report for a university lecturer describing the information below. Write at least 150 words.Student statistics for university courses in tourism, transport and travel, 2000-2002 |Applications |Acceptances | |Year |Men |Women |Men |Women |% of Total | |2000 |3,400 |900 |550 |150 |15. % | |2001 |3. 200 |800 |600 |200 |20% | |2002 |2,750 |750 |580 |170 |21,4% | II. Organizing the description You should try to group the information rather than describing every piece of data.Complete this paragraph outline for the Writing task in Exercise 1. | | |Paragraph 1: Introduce information | |Paragraph 2: †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. | |Paragraph 3: †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. | |Paragraph 4: †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. | III. Rewording the introduction Underline the most appropriate word(s) to complete this introduction to a sample answer. | |The table concerns university courses (1) in the field of/related to tourism, transport and travel in the UK. It shows (2)| |d ecreases/changes/increases in the (3) numbers/proportion/percentage of (4) applicants/male and female students applying | |for and being accepted on such courses (5) between/from 2000 and 2002. | IV. Describing the data a. Use the information in the table in Exercise 1 to complete these sentences with a word or number. 1.In all three years, more †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. applied for such courses than †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. , although their numbers †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. considerably, from 3,400 in 2000 to †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. in 2002. 2. Female †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. reached a little more than a quarter of the figures for †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. in 2000 and 2001, and they †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚ ¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. to 750 in 2002. 3. Total applications †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. during the period. 4. Many more †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. and †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. pplied for these courses than were accepted throughout the three years. 5. However, the †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. of applications which were accepted †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. from about 15% in 2000 to over †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. in 2002, even though the total number †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. only slightly. 6. Many more †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. were accepted than †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢ € ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. in all three years. 7. While total applications †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. , the †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. of those accepted †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. onsiderably. b. Now look back at your paragraph outline in Exercise 2 and group the sentences into paragraph 2, 3, 4. c. Decide which of the sequences in the box below you could use to start each paragraph. | | |Overall, With regard to applications, | |The table shows In terms of acceptances, | V. Reference LinksTo link ideas in a text and avoid unnecessary repetition, writers use a variety of reference links. Find the words in italics in sentences 1-7 in Exercise 4 and write down what each refer to. 1. such courses: †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. 6: the three years: †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â ‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. 2. their numbers: †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. 7. which: †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. 3. they: †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. 8. all three years: †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. 4. the period: †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. 9. those: †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. 5. these courses: †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦..VI. Speed writing practice Now do the writing task below. Remember to include editing time in the 20 minutes given. Remember: †¢ Don’t copy your introduction from the Writing task. †¢ Briefly describe the main features or trends and use figures to support these. Don’t describe every change. †¢ End with a summary of the data. †¢ Write at least 150 words. Writing Task 1 You should spend about 20 minutes on this task. The table below gives information about the use of different modes of transport in Shanghai in 1996, and one possible projection (high motorization scenario) for their use in 2020.Write a report for a university lecturer describing the information below. Write at least 150 words. Percentage of passenger kilometres by different modes of transport in Shanghai. |Mode of Transport |1996 |2020 (projection) | |Walking |7% |3% | |Bicycle |27% |3% |Scooter |12% |7% | |Bus |39% |22% | |Train |- |13% | |Car |15% |52% |

Plesiosaurs and Pliosaurs - The Sea Serpents

Of all the reptiles that crawled, stomped, swam and flew their way through the Mesozoic era, plesiosaurs and pliosaurs have a unique distinction: practically no one insists that tyrannosaurs still roam the earth, but a vocal minority believes that some species of these sea serpents have survived down to the present day. However, this lunatic fringe doesnt include many respected biologists or paleontologists, as well see below. Plesiosaurs (Greek for almost lizards) were large, long-necked, four-flippered marine reptiles that paddled their way through the oceans, lakes, rivers, and swamps of the Jurassic and Cretaceous periods. Confusingly, the name plesiosaur also encompasses the pliosaurs (Pliocene lizards, even though they lived tens of millions of years before), which possessed more hydrodynamic bodies, with bigger heads and shorter necks. Even the biggest plesiosaurs (such as the 40-foot-long Elasmosaurus) were relatively gentle fish-feeders, but the largest pliosaurs (such as Liopleurodon) were every bit as dangerous as a Great White Shark. Plesiosaur and Pliosaur Evolution Despite their aquatic lifestyles, its important to realize that plesiosaurs and pliosaurs were reptiles, and not fish--meaning they had to surface frequently to breathe air. What this implies, of course, is that these marine reptiles evolved from a terrestrial ancestor of the early Triassic period, almost certainly an archosaur. (Paleontologists disagree about the exact lineage, and its possible that the plesiosaur body plan evolved convergently more than once.) Some experts think the earliest marine ancestors of the plesiosaurs were the nothosaurs, typified by the early Triassic Nothosaurus. As is often the case in nature, the plesiosaurs and pliosaurs of the late Jurassic and Cretaceous periods tended to be bigger than their early Jurassic cousins. One of the earliest known plesiosaurs, Thalassiodracon, was only about six feet long; compare that to the 55-foot length of Mauisaurus, a plesiosaur of the late Cretaceous. Similarly, the early Jurassic pliosaur Rhomaleosaurus was only about 20 feet long, while the late Jurassic Liopleurodon attained lengths of 40 feet (and weighed in the neighborhood of 25 tons). However, not all pliosaurs were equally big: for example, the late Cretaceous Dolichorhynchops was a 17-foot-long runt (and may have subsisted on soft-bellied squids rather than more robust prehistoric fish). Plesiosaur and Pliosaurs Behavior Just as plesiosaurs and pliosaurs (with some notable exceptions) differed in their basic body plans, they also differed in their behavior. For a long time, paleontologists were puzzled by the extremely long necks of some plesiosaurs, speculating that these reptiles held their heads high above the water (like swans) and dived them down to spear fish. It turns out, though, that the heads and necks of plesiosaurs werent strong or flexible enough to be used this way, though they certainly would have combined to make an impressive underwater fishing apparatus. Despite their sleek bodies, plesiosaurs were far from the fastest marine reptiles of the Mesozoic Era (in a head-to-head match, most plesiosaurs would likely have been outflippered by most ichthyosaurs, the slightly earlier fish lizards that evolved hydrodynamic, tuna-like shapes). One of the developments that doomed the plesiosaurs of the late Cretaceous period was the evolution of faster, better-adapted fish, not to mention the evolution of more agile marine reptiles like mosasaurs. As a general rule, the pliosaurs of the late Jurassic and Cretaceous periods were bigger, stronger, and just plain meaner than their long-necked plesiosaur cousins. Genera like Kronosaurus and Cryptoclidus attained sizes comparable to modern grey whales, except that these predators were equipped with numerous, sharp teeth rather than plankton-scooping baleen. Whereas most plesiosaurs subsisted on fish, pliosaurs (like their underwater neighbors, the prehistoric sharks) probably fed on anything and everything that ventured their way, ranging from fish to squids to other marine reptiles. Plesiosaur and Pliosaur Fossils One of the odd things about plesiosaurs and pliosaurs pertains to the fact that, 100 million years ago, the distribution of the earths oceans was much different than it is today. Thats why new marine reptile fossils are constantly being discovered in such unlikely places as the American west and midwest, major portions of which were once covered by the broad, shallow Western Interior Sea. Plesiosaur and pliosaur fossils are also unusual in that, unlike those of terrestrial dinosaurs, theyre often found in one, completely articulated piece (which may have something to do with the protective qualities of the silt at the ocean bottom). These remains baffled naturalists as long ago as the 18th century; one fossil of a long-necked plesiosaur prompted a (still unidentified) paleontologist to quip that it looked like a snake threaded through the shell of a turtle. A plesiosaur fossil also figured in one of the most famous dust-ups in the history of paleontology. In 1868, the famous bone-hunter Edward Drinker Cope reassembled an Elasmosaurus skeleton with the head placed on the wrong end (to be fair, up to that point, paleontologists had never encountered such a long-necked marine reptile). This error was seized on by Copes arch-rival Othniel C. Marsh, kicking off a long period of rivalry and sniping known as the Bone Wars. Are Plesiosaurs and Pliosaurs Still Among Us? Even before a living coelacanth--a genus of prehistoric fish that was believed to have died off tens of millions of years ago--was found in 1938 off the coast of Africa, people known as cryptozoologists have speculated about whether all the plesiosaurs and pliosaurs really went extinct 65 million years ago along with their dinosaur cousins. Whereas any surviving terrestrial dinosaurs would likely have been discovered by now, the reasoning goes, the oceans are vast, dark and deep--so somewhere, somehow, a colony of Plesiosaurus might have survived. The poster lizard for living plesiosaurs, of course, is the mythical Loch Ness Monster--pictures of which bear a marked resemblance to Elasmosaurus. However, there are two problems with the theory that the Loch Ness monster is really a plesiosaur: first, as mentioned above, plesiosaurs breathe air, so the Loch Ness monster would have to emerge from the depths of its lake every ten minutes or so, which might draw some attention. And second, as also mentioned above, the necks of plesiosaurs simply werent strong enough to allow them to strike a majestic, Loch Ness-like pose. Of course, as the saying goes, the absence of evidence is not evidence of absence. Vast regions of the worlds oceans remain to be explored, and it doesnt defy belief (though its still a very, very long shot) that a living plesiosaur may one day be scooped up in a fishing net. Just dont expect it to be found in Scotland, in the vicinity of a famous lake!